2010 Wyoming Writers Contest Winner - NON-FICTION

 

THE WINDOWS OF HIS HEART

by Louise Lenahan Wallace

 

 

Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce

 

“. . . I thought he was trying to open the windows of his

heart to me, and at the same time endeavoring to read my disposition and character.”

 

General Oliver O. Howard

Spring 1875   

  

 

Joseph, Chief of the Nez Perce Indians from 1871 to 1904, has been termed one of the “most romantic and important figures in the history of the Pacific Northwest”.[1]  He is principally noted for being the reluctant but highly effective leader of the Nez Perce uprising of 1877, and for this feat, the nickname “Indian Napoleon” was bestowed upon him.[2] 

During that Nez Perce flight to Canada, Chief Joseph conducted the most scientific campaign ever commanded by an Indian against the United States Army.  No one knew better than he the tremendous odds against him, yet, for the freedom of his people, he fought with a force of never more than three hundred warriors against a total of two thousand soldiers at various times.  He opposed in battle veteran troops of the Civil War, considered the greatest soldiers in the world. He earned ungrudging praise from those same soldiers and from ordinary citizens across the United States.  How was he able to achieve such high personal recognition in the face of such profound adversity?

Joseph’s people believed in him—enough to follow him for seventy-five days, across eighteen hundred miles, battling the while against the most terrible obstacles.  Why did they do it?  How did he do it?

Ralph Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership provides insight into Chief Joseph’s character during that still-remembered journey. Stogdill was for many years Associate Director of the Ohio State Leadership Studies, and Management Director of the Academy of Management.  When the Smith Richardson Foundation asked him to provide an analysis and review of the literature on leadership, he defined his assignment as “that of assembling all the published evidence on a given topic and summarizing the findings.”[3]  Included in Stogdill’s profile listing of attributes indispensible for a “true” leader are such traits as  1) role retention  2) persuasiveness  3) demand reconciliation  4) influence with superiors  5) initiation of structure  6) integration  7) production emphasis  8) predictive accuracy  9) tolerance of freedom  10) consideration  11) tolerance of uncertainty  12) representation.[4]

Stogdill’s Handbook notes that “Leadership is a universal human phenomenon.”[5]  But the qualities of leadership regarded as important to one culture, society or generation may not be so considered by another group in another time or place.  If Stogdill’s

 attributes profile a leader of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, how

closely do they characterize a leader of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries—an individual separated from our present day not only by the time-span of a century, but also by ten decades of shifting social values, cultural structures, and ethnic mores?

A study of Chief Joseph (In-mut-too-yah-lat-lat—Thunder-Traveling-Over-the- Mountains) explores this concept.

Role Retention (actively exercises leadership role rather than surrendering leadership to others):  Arguments have arisen whether Joseph was the actual “war chief” of the 1877 campaign or whether he was “camp guardian”—protector of the women, children, and old men.  Dockstader says, “While courageous, he was not a warrior chief; he relied upon diplomacy and passive resistance in his relations with Whites.”[6]  Beal, in I Will Fight No More Forever, points out that:

The military officers…assumed Joseph was the dominant chieftain… Lieutenant Wood, General Howard’s aide, made the…statement…“He (Joseph) was, in council, at first probably not so influential as Whitebird… but from first to last he (Joseph) was preeminently their war chief.  Such was the testimony of his followers after the surrender, and such seems to be the evidence of the campaign itself.”[7]

This distinction between “war chief” and “camp guardian” is drawn with a fine line when considering Joseph’s qualities as a leader.  His was a “sacred trust.”[8] He fought only in self-defense when the families of the five bands involved in the retreat were hard-pressed by the soldiers.[9]

Persuasiveness (uses persuasion and argument effectively; exhibits strong convictions): 

When the Wallowa Valley was ceded to the United States Government by the Treaty of June 9, 1863, the act was “totally without legal right.”[10]  Joseph offered the argument:

“If we ever owned the land, we own it still, for we have never sold it.  In the treaty councils the commissioners have claimed that our country had been sold to the government.  Suppose a white man should come to me and say, ‘Joseph, I like your horses and I want to buy them.’  I say to him, No, my horses suit me, I will not sell them.’  Then he goes to my neighbor, and says to him:  ‘Joseph has some good horses.  I want to buy them but he refuses to sell.’  My neighbor answers, ‘Pay me the money and I will sell you Joseph’s horses.’  The white man returns to me and says, ‘Joseph, I have bought your horses, and you must let me have them.’  If we sold our lands to the government, this is the way they were bought.”[11]

Demand Reconciliation (reconciles conflicting organizational demands and

 

reduces disorder to system):  In 1871, Chief Joseph’s father died. Before he did so, he told Joseph:

     “My son, my body is returning to my mother earth, and my spirit is going very soon to see the Great Spirit Chief.  When I am gone, think of your country.  You are the chief of these people.  They look to you to guide them.  Always remember that your father never sold his country…. This country holds your father’s body.  Never sell the bones of your father and mother.”

     “I buried him in that beautiful valley of the winding waters,” Joseph said years later.  “I love that land more than all the rest in the world.  A man who would not love his father’s grave is worse than a wild animal.”[12]

Before fleeing to Canada, Chief Joseph’s problem was compounded when his followers reminded him he had promised his father he would never sell the land.  Chief Joseph had a clear conscience on this point, because he had no intention of selling any land.  He would claim ownership of the Wallowa as long as he lived, but if he should be ejected forcibly, he would be breaking no promise in securing the best possible terms for his people.[13]

Influence with Superiors (maintains cordial relationships with superiors; has influence with them):  In the spring of 1875, General Oliver Howard and Chief Joseph met for the first time, neither one knowing that in two short years, they would be pitted against each other in the hardest-fought campaign known to Indian warfare.  Of this meeting, Howard said later:

“Joseph put his large black eyes on my face, and maintained a fixed look for some time.  It did not appear to me as an audacious stare; but I thought he was trying to open the windows of his heart to me, and at the same time endeavoring to read my disposition and character…I think Joseph and I became then quite good friends.”[14] 

 Initiation of Structure (clearly defines own role, and lets followers know what is expected):  At the November 1876 council at Lapwai, Idaho, before the Nez Perce flight to Canada, Chief Joseph told General Howard:

“Do not misunderstand me, but understand me fully with reference to my affection for the land.  I never said the land was mine to do with as I chose.  The one who has a right to dispose of it is the one who created it.  I claim a right to live on my land, and accord you the privilege to live on yours.”[15]

Dr. Edward H. Latham, the physician at the Colville Reservation in Washington

Territory, was also a serious photographer of the Nez Perce.  His annoyance with a man who made his own terms is apparent in one of his letters to Edmond L. Meany of Seattle University:

 

 I got two negatives of Joseph…the old rascal fixed himself in a horrible shape, no one would know that it was Joseph, he painted himself…dead black, was covered all with Eagle feathers, was riding a poor old bony horse…the old scoundrel made me pay him ten dollars in advance, had I known how he was going to fix himself I would not have given him anything.[16]

 Integration (maintains a closely knit organization, resolves intermember conflicts):  General Howard mandated in May 1877 that the Nez Perce had thirty days to gather their scattered stock and people and report to the Colville Reservation.  Returning home, Joseph found the Indians greatly agitated.  Their uneasiness ignited some of the young warriors to fever pitch.  Other bands joined with Joseph’s and those chiefs supported the young warriors pleading for revenge, goading them to fight for their land rather than be driven from it like dogs.  Joseph knew the futility of winning anything by means of war, and speaking against bloodshed, urged the band to move immediately. 

“It required a strong heart to stand up against such talk,” Joseph related, “but I urged my people to be quiet, and not to begin a war.”[17] 

Ultimately, his reasoning won reluctant agreement and the tribe prepared to move.

In The Nez Perces, Francis Haynes says:

If in council the…advice…does not accord with their feelings, it is disregarded.  It speaks well for Joseph’s personality and his ability as a speaker that on this occasion he was able to persuade the entire band to accept his advice after a short discussion.[18]  

Production Emphasis (applies pressure for productive output):  After the Battle of the Big Hole in August 1877, General Howard wrote:

After Gibbon’s battle, Joseph showed his influence over the Indians by rallying them on a height, just beyond the reach of the long-range rifles.  He gathered the warriors, recovered lost ground, and recaptured his numerous herds of ponies…buried the most of his dead, and made good his retreat before the force with me was near enough to harm him.  Few military commanders, with good troops, could have recovered after so fearful a surprise.[19]

Predictive Accuracy (exhibits foresight and ability to predict outcomes accurately):  Black Eagle reported Joseph’s personal activities after the Battle of the Big Hole:

“Chief Joseph’s horses with many others were on the open hillside to the west.  The herd was back of and above the soldiers when they first charged the camp.  I saw Chief Joseph and No Heart…going afoot after the horses.  Both were barefooted, and Joseph had no leggings.  Only shirt and blanket.  Reaching their own horses, they mounted and drove the herd farther up the hill.”[20]

This rescue of the horses “indicates Joseph’s great presence of mind and ability to think and act in an emergency, for, had Gibbon’s men captured the herd of Indian ponies, the Nez Perces could have been defeated.”[21]

During the retreat, the Nez Perce fought eleven engagements, five of them full battles, of which they won three, tied one, and lost one.  When Joseph was asked where he got his military expertise, he replied, “The Great Spirit puts it in the heart and head of man to know how to defend himself.”  He admitted, however, that the Indians had learned to maneuver by watching the cavalry in their daily drills.  This sharp observation, wisely applied, enabled the Nez Perce to use all the military tactics the white soldiers employed.  In each engagement the “Chief knew accurately the number of troops opposing him until the final battle.  Had the Indians spread a chain of scouts, they might have avoided the last fight.”[22]

Tolerance of Freedom (allows followers scope for initiative, decision, and action):  During the peace negotiations just prior to the surrender at the Bear Paw Mountains, the Nez Perce warriors debated whether to keep fighting or to surrender.  During their discussion, a messenger from Howard’s encampment reported that the Army wanted no more fighting, that Howard had said, ‘“We will have no more war!’”[23]

This decree provided the solution to the Indians’ problem:  They could agree to end the battle without giving the appearance of a forced surrender.  Chief Joseph said, “'You see, it is true, I did not say, ‘Let’s quit!’” as he had been accused.

Yellow Wolf said this line of reasoning convinced most of the warriors.  They said, ‘“Yes, we believe you now.’”[24]

It was a significant point to the Indians, for to their understanding Chief Joseph was saying they would not be surrendering, but would merely be agreeing to end the fighting.  It would be a draw and they could go back to their homes with honor.[25]

Consideration (regards the comfort, well-being, status and contributions of followers):  Before surrendering his people to General Howard, Chief Joseph argued with Looking Glass:

    “I am older than you,” Looking Glass said to Chief Joseph.  “I have my experiences with a man of two faces and two tongues.  If you surrender, you will be sorry; and in your sorrow you will feel rather to be dead, than suffer that deception.”

      “Many of our people are out on the hills naked and freezing,” Joseph replied.  “The women are suffering with cold, the children crying with the chilly dampness of the shelter pits.  For myself I do not care.  It is for them I am going to surrender.”[26] 

Although Chief Joseph ruled the men, he apparently did not always have the final say in his household, if one can judge by his statement that, ‘“When you can get the last word with an echo, you may have the last word with your wife.’”[27]

Tolerance of Uncertainty (is able to tolerate uncertainty and postponement without anxiety or upset):  In the spring of 1889, the land allotment for the Nez Perce on the Lapwai Reservation began.  Jane Gay, in charge of the allotment process, was apparently not impressed by the abilities of the Nez Perce when it came to hard work.  She wrote:

They can ride ponies all day, but walking is a new sensation.  Their leg muscles are flabby and sharp stones cut moccasined feet…The poor fellows succumb crossing a canyon of only half pitch and they faint on the mountains when the thermometer is only 110 in the shade.[28]

In light of this viewpoint, Miss Gay’s assessment of Chief Joseph is revealing:

It was good to see an unsubjugated Indian…He cannot be persuaded to take his land upon the Reservation.  He will have none but the Wallowa

 Valley, from which he was driven; he will remain landless and homeless if he cannot have his own again…One could not help respecting the man who still stood firmly for his rights, after having fought and suffered and been defeated in the struggle for their maintenance.[29]

Representation (speaks and acts as representative of the group):  The Nez Perce were put on a train in November 1877, to be taken to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.  The cars were crowded and the train had to stop frequently so that the Indians could drink at the water tanks.  At one such stop, the train pulled away without anyone realizing Joseph was not yet back on board.  Quite a while passed before they discovered he was missing.  The train stopped, backed up, and in time came upon Joseph running down the tracks after it.  He had chosen to remain with his people rather than escape.[30]

During an interview for the North American Review of April 1879, Joseph said:

“Whenever the White man treats the Indian as they treat each other, then we shall have no more wars.  We shall be all alike—brothers of one father and one mother, with one sky above us and one country around us, and one government for all.  Then the Great Spirit Chief who rules above will smile upon this land, and send rain to wash out the bloody spots made by brothers’ hands upon the face of the earth.  For this time the Indian race is waiting and praying…In-mut-too-yah-lat-lat has spoken for his people.”[31] 

********

When Indian Inspector James McLaughlin made a final ruling against the Nez Perce ever returning to the Wallowa Valley, Chief Joseph’s last hope was shattered.  He took to sitting beside his campfire, looking out at the hills before him and murmuring, ‘“Halo manitah.’” (He would not live to see another winter.)  Chief Joseph died September 21, 1904, while sitting in front of his fire at Nespelem, Washington.  Dr. Edward H. Latham, the Colville Agency physician (and erstwhile photographer who was so voluble about Joseph’s painting-himself-black, picture-taking antics) reported simply

 

 that he had died of a broken heart.[32]

********

          The Port Angeles, Washington, Peninsula Daily News of June 13, 1997 reported:

…for the first time in 120 years, the Nez Perce again own land in Oregon’s Wallowa country.  The Nez Perce have bought a 10,300-acre cattle ranch from the Bonneville Power Administration….The Chief Joseph Preserve, as the land will be known, will serve mostly as winter range for elk.  It is also home to black bear, bighorn sheep, mule deer, peregrine falcons and steelhead….[33]

********

“Intelligence, dependability in exercising responsibilities, initiative, persistence, adaptability, judgment and humor” are some of the ingredients Ralph Stogdill lists in his

 Handbook of Leadership.[34]

At the Bear Paw Mountains in Montana on October 5, 1877, Chief Joseph surrendered the remnants of his band—eighty-seven men, one hundred eighty-four women, one hundred forty-seven children—with these words:

“The old men are all killed….The little children are freezing to death…. My people…have run away … and have no blankets, no food; no one knows where they are...Hear me my chiefs, I am tired; my heart is sick and sad.  From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever.”[35]

If he had foreseen that, after his surrender, one hundred twenty years would pass before the Nez Perce would be allowed to return home to the Wallowa Valley, would he have gone back in time, if possible, and for his people said, “No surrender, ever”?

          By Ralph Stogdill’s definition was Chief Joseph a “true leader”?  Joseph had no acquaintance with either Stogdill or the archetype Handbook of Leadership.  He merely, instinctively, daily lived his personal code ten decades before Stogdill set twelve precepts on paper and labeled them “leadership qualities.”

          In-mut-too-yah-lat-lat has spoken for his people.

 

References

 

Bass, B. Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership.  New York:  Free Press, 1981. 

Beal, M. I Will Fight No More Forever.  Seattle:  University of Washington Press, 1963. 

Dockstader, F. Great North American Indians.  New York:  Van Nostrand Reinholt Company, 1977. 

Gidley, M. With One Sky Above Us.  New York:  G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1979.   

Gidley, M. Kopet.  Seattle:  University of Washington Press, 1981. 

Gulick, B. Chief Joseph Country.  Caldwell, ID:  Caxton Printers, 1981. 

Haines, F. The Nez Perces.  Norman:  University of Oklahoma Press, 1955. 

Howard, H. Saga of Chief Joseph.  Caldwell, ID:  Caxton Printers, 1941. 

Hubler, R.  The Earthmother Drinks Blood. Ojai, CA: Creek House, 1975.

Johnson, J. Builders of the Northwest.  Binghampton, NY:  Vail-Ballou Press, 1963. 

Josephy, A. The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the Northwest.  New Haven:  Yale University Press, 1965. 

Nez Perce National Historical Park Handbook.  Washington, D.C.:  U.S. Department of Interior, 1983. 

Peninsula Daily News, (Port Angeles, Washington), “Nez Perce Go Home Again,” June 13, 1997.

Stogdill, R. Handbook of Leadership.  New York:  Free Press, 1974. 

Warren, S. The Farthest Frontier.  New York:  MacMillan Company, 1949.